Caste Data Collection in Pre-Colonial India: The Context of "Khanasumari"

In pre-colonial India, administrative surveys akin to what might be termed "Khanasumari" (or "Khānēsumārī," a Marathi/Kannada word for census-like counts) frequently included caste data, reflecting the integral role of caste in social and economic organization. While not as systematic or centralized as modern caste censuses (e.g., the British colonial census of 1931 or the planned 2027 Indian census), these surveys collected caste information to facilitate taxation, land revenue, labor allocation, and social hierarchy management. This article explores the historical evidence of caste data collection in pre-colonial India, particularly in the context of regional surveys that could be associated with the term "Khanasumari."

Historical Context of Caste Data Collection

Caste, encompassing both varna (the four-fold system of Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya, Shudra) and jati (specific sub-castes), was a cornerstone of pre-colonial Indian society, influencing occupational roles, land rights, and tax obligations. Rulers across various periods and regions conducted surveys to record population, resources, and social categories, often including caste to meet administrative needs. While the term "Khanasumari" is rooted in Marathi or Kannada linguistic contexts, it broadly aligns with these census-like activities, particularly in the Maratha Empire and South Indian kingdoms.

Ancient Period

• Mauryan Empire (321–185 BCE): The Arthashastra, attributed to Kautilya, details village-level record-keeping by officials known as gopa. These records categorized individuals by varna and occupational groups, capturing caste-related data indirectly for taxation and governance purposes. For example, households were classified by social status and profession, which often corresponded to caste identities. While not a comprehensive caste census, these practices laid the groundwork for systematic data collection.
  • Source: Kautilya, Arthashastra, trans. R. Shamasastry, 1915, Book II, Chapter 35 (public domain).
• Gupta Empire (320–550 CE): Administrative records, including land grants, often noted caste to determine tax exemptions (e.g., for Brahmins) or social roles. Inscriptions indicate that caste was a factor in land allocation, but no evidence suggests a centralized caste enumeration.
  • Source: R.C. Majumdar, The History and Culture of the Indian People: The Classical Age, Vol. III, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 1954, pp. 147–150.

Medieval Period

• Chola Dynasty (9th–13th centuries): In South India, Chola inscriptions, such as those on the Thanjavur temple, recorded details of landholders, laborers, and temple workers, specifying their jati to delineate roles like priests (Brahmins), artisans, or agricultural workers. These records supported revenue and labor management, with caste data being a critical component.
  • Source: K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, The Cholas, University of Madras, 1935, pp. 456–460.
• Vijayanagara Empire (14th–16th centuries): Revenue surveys documented landholders and cultivators, often identifying caste to assess tax obligations or labor roles. For instance, certain castes, such as weavers or blacksmiths, were tied to specific professions, and their details were recorded for economic planning.
  • Source: Burton Stein, Vijayanagara, Cambridge University Press, 1989, pp. 88–92.

Mughal Empire (1526–1857)

• Ain-i-Akbari (late 16th century): Under Emperor Akbar, the Mughal administration, through figures like Raja Todar Mal, conducted surveys for the zabt revenue system. These included household and land data, with occasional references to caste or community, particularly for groups like Rajputs (Kshatriyas) or artisanal castes, to determine military or economic contributions. The Ain-i-Akbari provides demographic data for provinces, sometimes noting caste-based occupational groups.
  • Source: Abul Fazl, Ain-i-Akbari, trans. H.S. Jarrett, 1891, Vol. II, pp. 40–45 (public domain).
• Local Administration: Mughal zamindars and village officials recorded caste to manage jizya (poll tax on non-Muslims) or allocate labor. Certain castes were exempt from taxes or assigned specific duties based on their social status.
  • Source: Irfan Habib, The Agrarian System of Mughal India, 1556–1707, Oxford University Press, 1963, pp. 120–125.

Maratha Empire (1674–1818)

In the Maratha regions, where the term "Khānēsumārī" likely originated, village officials (patils and kulkarnis) maintained detailed records of households, land, and taxes. Caste was frequently noted, as it determined social roles, land rights, and obligations, such as military service for Maratha Kshatriyas or revenue exemptions for Brahmins. These surveys, conducted particularly under Shivaji and the Peshwas in the 17th and 18th centuries, were localized but systematic. For example, village records might list populations by caste to organize agricultural labor or military campaigns, aligning with the concept of "Khanasumari."

• Source: A.R. Kulkarni, Maratha Revenue Administration, Maharashtra Archives, 1976, pp. 55–60.

Mysore and Other Regional Kingdoms

In the Kingdom of Mysore under Tipu Sultan (late 18th century), revenue and military surveys included caste details to categorize subjects by social and occupational roles. Records distinguished between cultivators, artisans, and other groups, often tied to caste identities, to support economic and military planning.

• Source: Kate Brittlebank, Tipu Sultan’s Search for Legitimacy, Oxford University Press, 1997, pp. 80–85.

Purpose and Scope of Caste Data

Caste data in pre-colonial surveys served practical administrative purposes:

• Taxation: Determining exemptions (e.g., for Brahmins) or levies based on caste status.
• Labor Allocation: Assigning roles like priests, warriors, or artisans, often tied to jati.
• Land Management: Correlating caste with land ownership or tenancy rights.

These surveys were not national caste censuses like those conducted under British rule. They were localized, often village- or region-specific, and focused on administrative needs rather than comprehensive caste enumeration. Records used varna or jati depending on context, and documentation varied, appearing in inscriptions, palm-leaf manuscripts, or revenue registers, which were not always standardized or preserved.

Connection to "Khanasumari"

The term "Khanasumari," rooted in Marathi/Kannada, likely refers to regional census-like activities, particularly in the Maratha Empire, where village-level surveys recorded caste for administrative purposes. For instance, a Maratha survey might document the number of Maratha, Brahmin, or Shudra households to assess tax or military obligations. While no pre-colonial survey is explicitly documented as a nationwide "caste census" under this term, caste data collection was a common practice, especially from the 17th century onward in regions like Maharashtra and South India.

Conclusion

Caste data was indeed collected in pre-colonial India as part of administrative surveys, with rudimentary practices dating back to the Mauryan period (circa 321 BCE) and more systematic efforts in the Maratha and South Indian kingdoms by the 17th century. These surveys, potentially termed "Khanasumari" in regions like Maharashtra, included caste to manage social and economic roles but were not centralized or solely focused on caste enumeration. The evidence underscores the deep integration of caste in pre-colonial governance, setting the stage for later colonial and modern census practices.

References

1. Kautilya. Arthashastra. Translated by R. Shamasastry, 1915. Book II, Chapter 35. Public domain.
2. Majumdar, R.C. The History and Culture of the Indian People: The Classical Age. Vol. III, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 1954, pp. 147–150.
3. Nilakanta Sastri, K.A. The Cholas. University of Madras, 1935, pp. 456–460.
4. Stein, Burton. Vijayanagara. Cambridge University Press, 1989, pp. 88–92.
5. Abul Fazl. Ain-i-Akbari. Translated by H.S. Jarrett, 1891. Vol. II, pp. 40–45. Public domain.
6. Habib, Irfan. The Agrarian System of Mughal India, 1556–1707. Oxford University Press, 1963, pp. 120–125.
7. Kulkarni, A.R. Maratha Revenue Administration. Maharashtra Archives, 1976, pp. 55–60.
8. Brittlebank, Kate. Tipu Sultan’s Search for Legitimacy. Oxford University Press, 1997, pp. 80–85.

Some sources, like the Arthashastra and Ain-i-Akbari, are available in public domain translations, while others are academic publications accessible through libraries or databases. For primary Maratha records, repositories like the Maharashtra State Archives may provide further details.